Hplc Analysis Of Aloe Vera Tablets Biology Essay

Hplc Analysis Of Aloe Vera Tablets Biology Essay The project work was aimed to achieve the quantitative determination of aloin and aloe emodin in the form of tablets by employing HPLC. The method used was reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography. Calibration curve method was used for the quantification of aloin and aloe emodin. The mobile phase was the mixture of acetonitrile and deionised water in the ratio of 60:40 respectively. The mobile phase was pumped at 1.5 ml/minute and the analyte was quantified at the wavelength of 220 and 296nm. The column used for separation was kromasil 5C18. Reverse phase Isocratic run of standard aloin and standard aloe emodin was done and the peaks obtained from their analysis were used to compare the test sample peaks. Aloe vera colax tablets manufactured by Aloe pura laboratories were used as the test sample tablets which were extracted with water, methanol, acetonitrile, methanol-water and acetonitrile-water. After extraction they were subjected for isocratic run in HPLC instrument a nd the data obtained were compared with that of the standard. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction to Aloe Vera Aloes is the dried juice of the leaves of Aloe barbadensis Miller, known as Curacao aloes, or of Aloe perryi Baker known as Socotrine aloes, or of Aloe ferox Miller and hybrids of the species of Aloe africana Miller and Aloe spicata Baker, known as Cape aloes belonging to the family Liliaceae. [2,3] The synonym of aloes is Aalwee, Aalwyn, Kumari, Star cactus, Aroe, Acibar, Babosa, etc. [1] Aloes is indigeneous to eastern and southern Africa and grown in Cape colony, Zanzibar and islands of Socotra. It is also cultivated in Caribbean islands, Europe and many parts of India, including North West Himalayan region. [2] All the varieties of aloe are the major sources of anthraquinone glycosides. The principal active composition of aloe is aloin, which is a mixture of glucosides, among which barbaloin is the chief constituent. It is chemically aloe-emodin anthrone C-10 glucoside and is water-soluble. [2] Barbaloin is a C- glycoside and it is not hydrolysed by heating with dilute acids or alkalies. Ferric chloride decomposes barbaloin by oxidative hydrolysis into aloe-emodin-anthrone, little aloe-emodin and glucose. [2] Along with barbaloin, aloes also contains isobarbaloin, b-barbaloin, aloe-emodin and resins. The drug also contains aloetic acid, homonataloin, aloesone, chrysophanic acid, chrysamminic acid, galactouronic acid, choline, choline salicylate, saponins, mucopolysaccharides, glucosamines, hexuronic acid, coniferyl alcohol, etc. [2] The amount of barbaloin in different commercial varieties varies to a large extent. Curacao aloes contain about 22 percent of barbaloin. Indian variety, generally Aloe vera contain very less quantity (3.5 to 4 percent). Curacao aloes contains two and half times quantity of aloe-emodin , compared to Cape-aloe-emodin. [2] The resin of aloe principally contains Aloesin. It is a type of C- glucosyl chromome. Aloesin is also responsible for purgative action of aloes. [2] Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Aloin [5] Aloe emodin [6] 1.2 Uses of Aloe Vera: Aloes is used as purgative. Its effect is mainly on colon. It has a stronger purgative action in the series of all crude drugs with anthracene glycosidal content. To counter effect the gripping action, it is given along with carminatives. [2] It facilitates the healing of any kind of skin wound, burn, or scald even speeding recovery time after surgery. [4] It is applied topically in acne, sunburn, frostbite (it appears to prevent decreased blood flow), shingles, screening out x-ray radiation, psoriasis, preventing scarring, rosacea, warts, wrinkles from aging, and eczema. [2, 4] It also seems to help prevent opportunistic infections in cases of HIV and AIDS due to its immune system stimulant properties. [4] It appears to be of help in cancer patients (including lung cancer) by cativating white blood cells and promoting growth of non- cancerous cells. [4] Aloe also appears to work on heartburn, arthritis, and rheumatism pain and asthma. [2, 4] It also lowers the blood sugar levels in diabetics. [2, 4] Other situations in which it appears to work when taken internally inclue congestion, internal worms, indigestion, stomach ulcers, colitis, hemorrhoids, liver problems such as cirrhosis and hepatitis, kidney infections, urinary tract infections, prostate problems, and as a general detoxifier. [2, 4] CHAPTER 2 HPLC 2.1 HPLC: Introduction and Instrumentation The technique of high performance liquid chromatography is so called because of its improved performance when compared to classical column chromatography. It is also called as high-pressure liquid chromatography since pressure is used when compared to classical column chromatography. Instead of a solvent being allowed to drip through a column under gravity, it is forced through under high pressure of up to 400 atmospheres. For the separation, identification and quantification of compounds, this method is frequently used in biochemistry and analytical chemistry. [11, 12] The development of HPLC from classical column chromatography can be attributed to the development of smaller particle sizes. Smaller particle size is important since they offer more surface area over the conventional larger sizes. [7] 1960s 40 to 60m 1970s 10 to 20m 1980s 5 to 10m 1990s 1 to 3m A porous particle of 5m offers a surface area of 100-860 sq.metres/gram with an average of 400 sq.metres/gram. These offer very high plate counts upto 100,000/metre. Table 1: Comparison of classical column chromatography with HPLC [7] Parameter Classical column chromatography HPLC Stationary phase particle size Large 60-200m Small 3-20m Column size Length x int. diameter Large 0.5-5m x 0.5-5cm i.d. Small 5-50cm x 1-10mm i.d. Column material Glass Mostly metal Column packing pressure Slurry packed at low pressure often gravity Slurry packed at high pressure >5000 psi Operating pressure Low ( High (500 3000 psi) Flow rates Low to very low Medium to high (Often >3ml/min) Sample load Low to medium (g/mg) Low to very low (mg) Parameter Classical column chromatography HPLC Cost Low High Detector flow cell volume Large 300 to 1000ml Low 2 to 10ml Column efficiency i.e. Resolving power (Low) Theoretical plates per meter (High) often >100,000 Plates per meter Types of stationary phases available Limited range Wide range Scale of operation Preparative scale Analytical and preparative scale 2.2 Types of HPLC techniques [7, 9, 10, 11, 12] Based on Modes of Chromatography There are two modes viz. Normal phase mode and Reverse phase mode. These modes are based on the polarity of stationary phase and mobile phase. Before explaining the modes, it is important to know the interactions, which occur between solute, stationary and mobile phase. Polar Polar interaction or affinity is more Nonpolar Nonpolar interaction or affinity is more Polar Nonpolar interaction or affinity is less Normal phase mode: In normal phase mode, the stationary phase (eg. Silica gel) is polar in nature and the mobile phase is non-polar. In this technique, non-polar compounds travel faster and are eluted first. This is because of less affinity between solute and stationary phase. Polar compounds are retained for longer time in the column because of more affinity towards stationary phase and take more time to be eluted from the column. This is not advantageous in pharmaceutical applications since most of the drug molecules are polar in nature and takes longer time to be eluted and detected. Hence this technique is not widely used in pharmacy. Reverse phase mode: In reverse phase technique, a non-polar stationary phase is used. The mobile phase is polar in nature. Hence polar components get eluted first and non-polar compounds are retained for a longer time. Since most of the drugs and pharmaceuticals are polar in nature, they are not retained for a longer time and eluted faster, which is advantageous. Different columns used are ODS (Octadecyl silane) or C18, C8, C4, etc. Common reverse phase solvents are methanol, acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuran and water. Based on principle of separation Adsorption chromatography Ion exchange chromatography Ion pair chromatography Size exclusion or Gel permeation chromatography Affinity chromatography Chiral phase chromatography Each of the above technique is described in brief as follows: Adsorption chromatography: The principle of separation is adsorption. Separation of components takes place because of the difference in affinity of compounds towards stationary phase. This principle is seen in normal phase as well as reverse phase mode, where adsorption takes place. Ion exchange chromatography: The principle of separation is ion exchange, which is reversible exchange of functional groups. In ion exchange chromatography, an ion exchange resin is used to separate a mixture of similar charged ions. For cations, a cation exchange resin is used. For anions, an anion exchange resin is used. Ion pair chromatography: In ion pair chromatography, a reverse phase column is converted temporarily into ion exchange column by using ion pairing agents like pentane or hexane or heptane or octane sulphonic acid sodium salt, trtramethyl or tetraethyl ammonium hydroxide, etc. Size exclusion or gel permeation chromatography: In this type of chromatography, a mixture of components with different molecular sizes is separated by using gels. The gel used acts as molecular sieve and hence a mixture of substances with different molecular sizes is separated. Soft gels like agarose , dextran or polyacrylamide are used. Semi rigid gels like polystyrene, alkyl dextran in non-aqueous medium are also used. The mechanism of separation is by steric and diffusion effects. Affinity chromatography: Affinity chromatography uses the affinity of the sample with specific stationary phases. This technique is mostly used in the field of Biotechnology, Microbiology, Biochemistry, etc. Chiral phase chromatography: Separation of optical isomers can be done by using chiral stationary phases. Different principles operate for different types of stationary phases and for different samples. The stationary phases used for this type of chromatography are mostly chemically bonded silica gel. Based on elution technique 1. Isocratic separation: In this technique, the same mobile phase combination is used throughout the process of separation. The same polarity or elution strength is maintained throughout the process. In this technique, the peak width increases with retention time linearly according to the equation for N, the number of theoretical plates. Gradient separation: In this technique, a mobile phase combination of lower polarity or elution strength is used followed by gradually increasing the polarity or elution strength. One example is a gradient starting at 10% acetonitrile and ending at 90% acetonitrile after 25 minutes. The two components of the mobile phase are termed as A and B. Where A is the weak solvent and B is the strong solvent. Weak solvent allows the solute to elute slowly while strong solvent rapidly elutes the solutes from the column. A is usually water where as B is an organic solvent which is miscible with water such as acetonitrile, methanol, THF or isopropanol. Based on scale of operation 1. Analytical HPLC: Where only analysis of the samples are done. Recovery of the samples for reusing is normally not done, since the sample used is low. Eg. mg quantities. 2. Preparative HPLC: Where the individual fractions of pure compounds can be collected using fraction collector. The collected samples are reused eg. Separation of few grams of mixtures by HPLC. Based on type on analysis 1. Qualitative analysis: Which is used to identify the compound, detect the presence of impurities, to find out the number of components, etc. This is done by using retention time values. 2. Quantitative analysis: Which is done to determine the quantity of the individual or several components in a mixture. This is done by comparing the peak area of the standard and sample. 2.3 Principle of separation in HPLC: [7, 9] The principle of separation in normal phase and reverse phase mode is adsorption. When a mixture of components is introduced in to a HPLC column, they travel according to their relative affinities towards the stationary phase. The component, which has more affinity towards the adsorbant, travels slower. The component, which has less affinity towards the stationary phase, travels faster. Since no two components have the same affinity towards the stationary phase, the components are separated. 2.4 Instrumental Requirements [7, 9, 10, 12] Pumps solvent delivery system Mixing unit, gradient controller and solvent degassing Injector Manual or auto injectors Guard columns Detectors Recorders and integrators Fig. 3 The schematic diagram of HPLC [13] 1. Pump Solvent delivery system The solvents or mobile phases used must be passed through the column at high pressure at about 1000 to 3000 psi. This is because as the particle size of stationary phase is few m (5 10m), the resistance to the flow of solvent is high. Hence such high pressure is recommended. There are different types of pumps available. They are mechanical pumps and pneumatic pumps. A mechanical pump operates with constant flow rate and uses a sapphire piston. This type of pump is used in analytical scale. Pneumatic pumps operate with constant pressure and use highly compressed gas. The solvents used must be of high purity, preferably HPLC grade and filtered through 0.45m filter. Check valves: These are present to control the flow rate of solvent and back pressure. Pulse dampners: These are used to dampen the pulses observed from the wavy baseline caused by the pumps. 2. Mixing unit, gradient controller and solvent degassing Mixing unit is used to mix solvents in different proportions and pass through the column. There are two types of mixing units. They are low pressure mixing chamber, which uses helium for degassing solvents. High pressure mixing chamber does not require helium for degassing solvents. Mixing of solvents is done either with a static mixer, which is packed with beads, or dynamic mixer, which uses magnetic stirrer and operates under high pressure. Gradient controller In an isocratic separation, mobile phase is prepared by using pure solvent or mixture of solvents, i.e. solvent of same eluting power or polarity is used. But in gradient elution technique, the polarity of the solvent is gradually increased and hence the solvent composition has to be changed. Hence a gradient controller is used when two or more solvent pumps are used for such separations. Solvent degassing Several gases are soluble in organic solvents. When solvents are pumped under high pressure, gas bubbles are formed which will interfere with the separation process, steady baseline and the shape of the peak. Hence degassing of the solvent is important. This can be done by using any one of the following technique. Vacuum filtration which can remove all air bubbles. But it is not always reliable and complete. Helium purging i.e. by passing helium through the solvent. This is very effective but helium is expensive. Ultrasonication by using ultrasonicator, which converts ultra high frequency to mechanical vibrations. This causes the removal of air bubbles. 3. Injector Manual or auto injectors Several devices are available either for manual or auto injection of the sample. Different devices are: Septum injectors for injecting the sample through a rubber septum. This is not common, since the septum has to withstand high pressure. Stop flow (on line) in which the flow of mobile phase is stopped for a while and the sample is injected through a valve device. Rheodyne injector (Loop valve type) It is the most popular injector. This has a fixed volume loop like 20ml or 50ml or more. Injector has two modes, i.e. load position when the sample is loaded in the loop and inject mode, when the sample is injected. 4. Guard column Guard column has very small quantity of adsorbent and improves the life of the analytical column. It also acts as a prefilter to remove particulate matter, if any, and other material. Guard column has the same material as that of analytical column. Guard column does not contribute to any separation. 5. Analytical columns Analytical column is the most important part of HPLC technique, which decides the efficiency of separation. There are several stationary phases available depending upon the technique or mode of separation used. Column material: The columns are made up of stainless steel, glass, polyethylene and PEEK (Poly ether ether ketone). Most widely used are stainless steel, which can withstand high pressure. Latest ones are PEEK columns. Column length: Varies from 5cm to 30cm Column diameter: Ranges from 2mm to 50mm Particle size: From 1m to 20m Particle nature: Spherical, uniform sized, porous materials are used. Surface area: 1 gram of stationary phase provides surface area ranging from 100 860 sq.m with an average of 400 sq.m. Functional group: the functional group present in stationary phase depends on the type of chromatographic separation. In normal phase mode it contains the silanol groups (hydroxy group). In reverse phase mode it contains the following groups: C18 Octa Decyl Silane (ODS) column C8 Octyl column C4 Butyl column CN Nitrile column NH2 Amino column For other modes of chromatography, ion exchange columns, gel columns, chiral columns, affinity chromatographic columns, etc. are available. 6. Detectors [7,9,10] Detectors used depend upon the property of the compounds to be separated. Different detectors available are UV detector: This detector is based upon the light absorption characteristics of the sample. Two types of this detector are available. One is the fixed wavelength detector, which operates at 254nm where most drug compounds absorb. The other is the variable wavelength detector, which can be operated from 190nm to 600nm. Refractive index detector: This is a non-specific or universal detector. This is not much used for analytical applications because of low sensitivity and specificity. Flourimetric detector: This detector is based on the fluorescent radiation emitted by some class of compounds. The exitation wavelength and emission wavelength can be selected for each compound. This detector has more specificity and sensitivity. The disadvantage is that some compounds are not fluorescent. Conductivity detector: Based upon electrical conductivity, the response is recorded. This detector is used when the sample has conducting ions like anions and cations. Amperometric detector: This detector is based on the reduction or oxidation of the compounds when a potential is applied. The diffusion current recorded is proportional to the concentration of the compound eluted. This is applicable when compounds have functional groups, which can be either oxidised or reduced. This is a highly sensitive detector. Photodiode array detector (PDA detector): This is a recent one, which is similar to UV detector, which operates from 190 600nm. Radiations of all wavelengths fall on the detector simultaneously. The resulting spectrum is a 3-D or three-dimensional plot of Response Vs Time Vs Wavelength. The advantage is that the wavelength need not be selected, but the detector detects the responses of all the compounds. 7. Recorders and integrators Recorders: They are used to record the responses obtained from detectors after amplification, if necessary. They record the baseline and all the peaks obtained, with respect to time. Retention time for all the peaks can be found out from such recordings, but the area of individual peaks cannot be known. Integrators: Integrators are improved version of recorders with some data processing capabilities. They can record the individual peaks with retention time, height, and width of peaks, peak area, percentage of area, etc. Integrators provide more information on peaks than recorders. Now a days computers and printers are used for recording and processing the obtained data and for controlling several operations. 2.5 Parameters used in HPLC [7, 9, 10] Retention time (Rt): Retention time is the difference in the time between the point of injection and appearance of peak maxima. Retention time is the time required for 50% of a component to be eluted from a column. Retention time is measured in minutes or seconds. Retention time is also proportional to the distance moved on a chart paper, which can be measured in cm or mm. Retention volume (Vr): Retention volume is the volume of mobile phase required to elute 50% of the component from the column. It is the product of retention time and flow rate. Retention volume = Retention time x flow rate Separation factor (S): Separation factor is the ratio of partition co-efficient of the two components to be separated. It can be expressed and determined by using the following equation: S = Kb/ Ka = Ka/ Kb = (tb t0)/ (ta t0) Where, t0 = Retention time of unretained substance Kb, Ka= Partition coefficients of b and a tb, ta = Retention time of substance b and a S = depends on liquid phase, column temperature If there is more difference in partition coefficient between two compounds, the peaks are far apart and the separation factor is more. If the partition coefficients of two compounds are similar, then the peaks are closer and the separation factor is less. Resolution: Resolution is a measure of the extent of separation of two components and the baseline separation achieved. It can be determined by using the following formula: Rs = 2 (Rt1 Rt2)/ (W1 +W2) Theoretical plate (Plate theory): A theoretical plate is an imaginary or hypothetical unit of a column where distribution of solute between stationary phase and mobile phase has attained equilibrium. A theoretical plate can also be called as a functional unit of the column. HETP Height Equivalent to a Theoritical Plate [18, 7] A theoretical plate can be of any height, which decides the efficiency of separation. If HETP is less, the column is more efficient. If HETP is more, the column is less efficient. HETP can be calculated by using the following formula: HETP = length of the column/ number of theoretical plates HETP is given by Van Deemter equation HETP = A + (B/u ) + Cu Where, A = Eddy diffusion term or multiple path diffusion which arises due to packing of the column. This is unaffected by mobile phase velocity or flow rate. This can be minimised by uniformity in packing. B = Longitudinal diffusion term or molecular diffusion which depends on flow rate. C = Effect of mass transfer which depends on flow rate. u = Flow rate or velocity of the mobile phase. A column is efficient only when HETP is minimum. Hence an ideal flow rate corresponding to the minimum value of HETP is used. Efficiency (No. of theoretical plates): The number of theoretical plates expresses efficiency of a column. It can be determined by using the formula: n = 16 Rt ²/w ² Where, n = no. of theoretical plates Rt = retention time w = peak width at base Rt and w are measured in common units (mm or cm or minutes or seconds) and are proportional to the distances marked on chart paper. If the number of theoretical plates is high, the column is said to be highly efficient. If the number of theoretical plates is low, the column is said to be less efficient. For gas chromatographic columns, a value of 600/ metre is sufficient. But in HPLC, high values like 40,000 to 70,000/ metre are recommended. Asymmetry factor: A chromatographic peak should be symmetrical about its centre and said to follow Gaussian distribution. In such cases, the peak will be like an isosceles triangle. But in practice, due to some factors, the peak is not symmetrical and shows tailing or fronting. Fronting is due to saturation of stationary phase and can be avoided by using less quantity of sample. Tailing is due to more active adsorption sites and can be eliminated by support pre-treatment, more polar mobile phased increasing the amount of liquid phase. Asymmetry factor (0.95 to 1.05) can be calculated by using the formula: AF = b/a (b and a calculated at 5% or 10% of the peak height) 2.6 Applications of HPLC HPLC is being more widely used in several fields. Apart from its use in Pharmaceutical field, it is used in Chemical and Petrochemical industry, Environmental applications, Forensic applications, Biochemical separations, Biotechnology, Food analysis, etc. In fact there is no field where HPLC is not being used. It is a versatile and sensitive technique, which can be used in several ways. Some of them are listed below: Qualitative analysis: It is nothing but identification of compound. This is done by comparing the retention time of the sample as well as the standard. Under identical conditions, the retention time of the standard and the sample are same. If there is a deviation, then they are not the same compound. Checking the purity of the compound: By comparing the chromatogram of the standard and that of the sample, the purity of the compound can be inferred. If additional peaks are obtained, impurities are present and hence the compound is not pure. From the percentage area of the peaks obtained, the percentage purity can also be known. Presence of impurities: This can be seen by the presence of additional peaks when compared with a reference standard or reference material. The percentage of impurities may also be calculated from peak areas. Quantitative analysis: The quantity of a component can be determined by several methods like a. Direct comparison method By injecting a sample and standard separately and comparing their peak areas, the quantity of the sample can be determined. Area of the peak = peak height x width of peak at the half height A1/ A2 = a (W1/ W2) Where, A1 and A2 are peak area of sample and standard W1 and W2 are weight or concentration of sample and standard a is the response factor b. Calibration curve method: In calibration curve method, series of standards are used to determine their peak areas. A calibration curve of peak area Vs concentration of the drug is plotted. From the peak area of the unknown sample, by intrapolation, the concentration of the sample can be determined. This method has the advantage that errors, if any, are minimised. Internal standard method: In this method, a compound with similar retention characteristics is used. A known concentration of the internal standard is added to the sample solution whose concentration is not known. The chromatogram is recorded and their peak areas are determined. By using formula, the concentration of unknown solution is determined. Multicomponent analysis or Determination of mixture of drugs: Similar to the quantification of a single drug, multicomponent analysis can be done easily. The quantity of each component is determined by using any one of the above methods. Marketed formulations, which contain several drugs, can be determined quantitatively for each component. Isolation and identification of drugs or metabolites in urine, plasma, serum, etc. can be carried out. Isolation and identification of mixture of components of natural or synthetic origin. Biopharmaceutical and Pharmacokinetic studies. Stability studies. Purification of some compounds of natural or synthetic origin on preparative scale. 2.7 Limitations: [7, 10] The limitations of HPLC are that drugs have to be extracted from their formulations prior to analysis and large amounts of organic solvent waste are generated which are expensive to dispose off. CHAPTER 3 Experimental Selection 3.1 Aim of Project: The aim of this project was to carry out the quantitative determination of the active pharmaceutical ingredient aloin and aloe-emodin in the given Aloe Vera Colax tablets, manufactured by Aloe Pura laboratories and to compare the results with the given standard aloin and aloe-emodin. The technique used for analysis was reverse phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography method. The analysis was performed using standard calibration curve generated at 220 and 296nm wavelength. 3.2 Chromatographic equipment and conditions: All the chromatographic equipments and conditions, which were used to perform HPLC in a laboratory environment under simulated GLP compliance conditions, are listed below. 3.2.1 HPLC system 5 (used for isocratic elution): This system is manufactured by Agilent technologies 1200 series, whose model number is G1310A and the serial number is DE 62956545 3.2.2 Software used: The software used was Microsoft windows XP, Pentium D whose product number is G 2175 BA, revision code is B. 03. 01 and its registration number is CL1CE8DB0F 3.2.3 Column used: The column used was Kromasil 5C18 whose test number is 9203- 10344 3.2.4 Pipette used: The pipette used was Volac ultra (made in U.K.), S. No. 29186, Model: R680/ F, 0-1000 mL and Volac ultra (made in U.K.), S.No. 29185, Model: R680/ F, 500-5000 mL. 3.2.5 Analytical Balance: Mettler balance AC 88 was used to weigh the sample drug whose Biom

Management Case study Essay

Case Study 1. How do information technologies contribute to the business success of the companies depicted in the case? Provide an example from each company explaining how the technology implemented let to improved performance. Information technologies are imperative to businesses and organizations that want to be successful. In this case, there were three companies that demonstrated how information technologies helped their business. The first company was eCourier. eCourier delivers packages around London and wanted to â€Å"keep real-time tabs on customer satisfaction†(Textbook, pg 5). eCourier used SeeWhy software to help give them customer data faster. This software allowed eCourier to see when client’s accounts were going dormant or if there were changes in the bookings. With this new data, eCourier saved money by not having to add extra staff to monitor who was happy with service and who was not. The second company was Cablecom. Cablecom was also interested customer satisfaction. They used statistical software to look through customer data and filter out trouble. They also found that using survey research in combination with statistical software gave a more accurate look at customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction. These two information technologies allowed Cablecom to see which customers were unhappy and helped them retain those customers. Finally, the third company was a law firm called Bryan Cave. Bryan Cave needed an alternative to the hourly fee normally charged by law firms. Clients wanted â€Å"fixed pricing and pricing that was adjusted during a project† (Textbook, pg 6). The law firm had spreadsheets to help breakdown the collection of fees and how much profit was being made but these spreadsheets were difficult and confusing. The company used business intelligent tools to help â€Å"lawyers track budgets in real time so that they could quickly make adjustments†(Textbook, pg. 6). The use of this technology led to improved profitability for the law firm and also improvement in hours worked by fee earners in the law firm. 2. In the case of law firm Bryan Cave discussed above, the use of BI technology to improve the availability, access, and presentation of existing  information allowed them to provide tailored and innovative services to their customers. What other professions could benefit from a similar use of these technologies, and how? Develop two different possibilities. Many professions can use business intelligence tools just like in the case of Bryan Cave law firm. The banking industry can use BI tools to stay competitive. With competition nature and increasing due regulatory legislation surrounding financial institutions, it is imperative that financial institutions monitor customer’s behaviors related to consumption of banking products in an effort to retain the customers. Business intelligence tools are being developed and marketed to banks to help monitor, analyze accounts, and determine customer profitability. This type of business intelligence tool would help the banks market to current customers based on their propensity to purchase products based on transaction behavior and other products the customers currently utilize. Additionally, a business intelligience tool that performs an analysis of the current fee structure charged for existing products in relation to the competition in the marketplace would help the bank determine if their pricing structure is competitive and in line with the competition. This technology would also help financial institutions identify which customers are profitable and whether or not fees should be increased or reduced. Currently, Chemical Bank has implemented a business intelligience tool that commerical lenders will utilize by cross rreferencing their loan portfolio and any prospect against to determine the profitability of the customer in relation to the company’s return on equity. The business intelligience tool will help the commerical lenders determined if the loan rate is in line given certain parameters such as the market, financial statements, and the customer’s business plan. Additionally, the tool will help determine if packaging a suite of products would benefit the customer if more products and services of the bank were utilized. Finally, Chemical Bank is investigating an innovative business intelligence tool called data cube is being considered for implementation. The data cubes would be developed from different reports for regional sales managers allowing them to manipulate the data to be more useful strategic planning and determining staffing solutions. BS&A software  company could benefit from business intelligence tools. BS& A provides tax software and assessing software to many Michigan townships and cities. Each platform communicates with any of the other BS& A platforms. From personal experience it is a wonderful program. To help retain current clients BS& A could use survey research to see what needs to be enhanced for each client or what needs to be simplified for each client. This would allow the company to then tailor its software to fit each customer’s needs. At the township I work, we needed a way to enter credit card payments into our tax program from BS & A. The only payments accepted in the software were checks and cash. By filling out the survey and sending it back via internet I was immediately contacted and the program writers made the necessary changes that allowed me to enter when a client of the township paid with a credit card. I was very satisfied with the results and BS & A retained my township as one of their clients. Case Study 3: Cablecom developed a prediction model to better identify those customers at risk of switching to other company in the near future. In addition to those noted in the case, what other actions could be taken if that information were available? Give some examples of these. Would you consider letting some customers leave anyway? Why? Cablecom used two softwares, SPSS’s statistical software and SPSS’s Dimensions survey research software, to study customer dissatisfaction. SPSS’s statistical software tells: 1. How many times problem occurred 2. How long does it took to fix the problem Drawbacks of this software: This may or may not tell what the problem was. SPSS’s Dimensions survey research software tells: 1. After how many months of service customers gets dissatisfied- 9 months 2. When customers switch most- between 12-14 months Drawback: why to wait till 7-9 months to find the problem? Actions to prevent switching: Find the problem, fix the problem: Send monthly satisfaction surveys to find the problem areas. If people are not responding very well then add some incentives to it like lucky prizes from the drawings of responders. Be PROACTIVE 1. Keep customers engaged by prroviding some money saving tips to customers with their monthly bill. Some 2. examples of tips that may improve customer retention are: family plans over individual plans that would allow for a cost savings; Explain the benefit of texting if it’s cheaper than making phone calls; explain the benefits of bundled plans over individual plans for phone, cable and TV; tips to increase the life of the products that Cablecom provides. Newsletters about new products and services, explaining how these are useful to customers and how they are better than competition. Brining a value added benefit to customers on a monthly or quarterly basis will create an affinity for the services a company provides. I will not consider letting some customers leave anyway, unless those are financially unsustainable on long-term basis. There are different reasons for this: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. If customer is there then job is available. It takes lots of advertising resources to get one customer. One satisfied customer brings more customers by word of mouth. One unsatisfied customer talks bad about company more loudly than a satisfied  customer talks good about company. Your competitor is getting your business. Question 9. In what major ways have the roles of information systems applications in business expanded during the last 40 years? What is one major change you think will happen in the next 10 years? The roles of information systems applications in business evolved in following order during the last 40 years: ï‚ · ï‚ · Technical changes or Data Processing: Until 1960 information systems was used for transactions, processing, record keeping, accounting. Managerial changes (1960s to 80’s): 1. Management reporting (1960’s): MIS helped in making managerial decisions from pre defined managerial 2. reports. Decision Support System (1970’s): Introduced to help management make decisions from the available raw data using unique inputs and style. ï‚ · Corporate Activities (1980’s to 2000’s): 1. Strategic end user support (1980’s): This includes end user computing, executive information for critical 2. 3. decisions, use of artificial intelligence for strategy building, expert systems for providing knowledge to end user and strategic information on how to place products and services in competitive world. Enterprise Resource Planning (2000’s): It includes every aspect of business ranging from manufacturing, supply, sales, HR, Inventory management, marketing etc. This also uses business Intelligence for better insight into competitor activities. Enterprise beyond vendors and customers or global Networking (1990’s): Introduction of e-commerce, ebusiness, development of internet, intranet and extranet. In future 10 years, speed and integrity of Information system will be crucial. This includes solving the problem of ethics in business, storage of personal information and data, missing or incorrect information. Some examples of the challenges include insider trading in stock market, corruption in news corporations, credit card and insurance companies. P.S.: I am having a hard time in fixing bullets and numbering on this page editor. It inserts numbers automatically when not needed and does not accepts bullets when needed. So proper formatting is a challenge unless I type on this page. Any suggestions or ideas to fix this problem are welcome. Gubir, I had the same problem with formatting so related to indenting. Insead of typing this editor, I have been typing in a Microsoft word document, to copy and paste the text over. It allows me to do a better spell and grammar check as well. ~Lisa Question 1 How can information technology support a company’s business processes and decision making and give it a competitive advantage? Give examples to illustrate your answer. As stated in the textbook, â€Å"information technology can help support all types of business by improving efficiency and effectiveness of businesses processes and decision making† (Textbook, p.4). Incorporating information technology early in the decision making process and working collaboratively with the different business units will provide opportunities to strengthen a company’s competitive position by creating innovative solutions to deliver in the marketplace. Additionally, it’s imperative to involve information technologist specialists or strategists  (depending on the title designated by companies) at the very early stages of decision making processes. Understanding the role of IT in the managerial decision making process will help the manager make better decisions that provide a competitive edge. For example, a manager of retail store deciding which product line to add to a store may analyze computer generated reports to support his or her decision as the goal is to remain profitable and have an edge over the local competitor. The manager would demonstrate poor decision making and leadership by reviewing reports after purchasing the product line. Carrying a product line that customers will not purchase does not make good business sense. Further, managers involved in a company’s strategic planning process should seek the knowledge and support of information technology specialists as well to determine the role information technology will play in developing and implementing the company short term and long term strategic initiatives. Information technology systems can be an essential ingredient in business processes such as product development, customer support processes, and ecommerce transactions (Textbook, pp. 8-9). For example, as a Retail Sales Manager for Chemical Bank, information technology representatives work collaboratively with me and other teams we develop new initiatives and projects to support the company’s strategic plans. Most recently, the company embarked on a mission to increase the services and products of the current customers at penetration rate of 70%. A manager is sought the support IT as I created training of my staff to achieve the goal and also to develop the reporting of data to monitor progress toward the goal. Without a robust product line and customer service centers to meet the needs of the customers, financial institutions are not profitable or competitive. Information technology helps financial institutions stay in tune with the customer’s needs, wants and pulse of the industry. Question 2. How does the use of the Internet, intranets, and extranets by companies today support their business processes activities? The Internet, intranets, extranets, and the technologies that support the  applications have changed the business processes, the productivity and communication of employees, and helped companies participate in a global marketplace. As a starting place, it’s imperative to evaluate how the Internet, intranets and extranets have revolutionized the work environment and productive of the employees driving businesses. Employees now ability to work virtually and collaborating with different work groups or teams from across the company via e-mail, videoconferencing, e-discussion groups without geographic barriers. By utilizing intranets (networks within the company or enterprise), employees can support business applications from anywhere they have access or connectivity to an intranet. For example, employees at the financial institution I am employed, Chemical Bank, can access loan documents needed to close a loan for customer instantly from a cue on their desktop instead of waiting for an inter-office mail delivery from the loan department. All 142 branches have equal access in real time for loan documentation. Obviously, the speedier process of delivering loan document supports the bank’s profitability by getting the loans on the book quicker as well as providing better customer service because there is less wait time for the customer. Additionally, employee work more efficiently and the exchange of ideas flows better with the use of the intranet for internal projects and the extranet for interfacing and exchange of ideas with customers. The extranet (the network or enterprise between the business and the customers/vendors) provides for the business and the employees the infrastructure to support business applications vital to many companies and the ability to collaborate among workgroups. (Textbook, p.12) Further, the Internet has benefits and supports businesses today by establishing a medium for the exchange of not only ideas but also goods and services. E-Commerce is defined by the book as â€Å"the buying, selling, marketing, and servicing of products, services, and information over a variety of computer networks†. (Textbook, p. 13) Businesses utilize the Internet in every step of the process involved in selling a service or good. Businesses advertise and market the goods and services on the Internet to promote the brand loyalty. Additionally, the ability to purchase goods on line and make payments increases the sales and profitability of companies. For example, Kohl’s department stores now have kiosks placed in their stores. Customers who cannot find a size of a particular item or merchandise that is no longer in  stock at one location utilizes the kiosk for service. The kiosk is an internet based selling system that allows customers to purchase items using their Kohl’s charge with all applicable discounts and the item will be sent to the customer’s home within a very short period of time. In years prior, customers would try to locate a sales representative who would contact another store to locate the item wanted which could take up to twenty minutes. Then, the option is given to the customer to pick up the item at another store that has it or have the merchandise delivered to a local store requiring another trip by the customer. The process was cumbersome and didn’t provide the customer with an exception customer service experience. The kiosk on the other hand provides instant service and creates customer loyalty. Finally, the market research and data that the Internet provides can support a company all the way from product development and innovation to the level of service being delivered by the employees on the front line. All of which is very important to businesses in making managerial decisions and deciding business processes. For example, financial institutions such as Chemical Bank are employing marketing firms to conduct Internet research to determine the brand loyalty of banking products or conducting online surveys to capture data about the customer’s experience in the branch as well as what products are missing from the bank’s current suite of products. Businesses can know how many â€Å"clicks† on their website to the feedback about the business’ service by monitoring Facebook and Twitter. 4. Why do big companies still fail in their use of information technology? What should they be doing differently? Big companies still fail in their use of information technology because they do not follow the right strategies to apply this technology to work effectively. Efficiency and effectiveness are the keys to a successful company. Companies have to be aware of the implications and abilities of f their information technology and how to apply it to their daily business  practices. They must be knowledgable and remain aware of the latest innovations in the technological machineries as well as its functions as well as its business applications. Many large companies do not realize the potential of the technology their current possess that contributes to them not seeing the value in the information technology because they are only measuring the information in terms of effeciency when they actually should be looking at effectiveness in supporting the organization’s buiness processes. Management of large companies fail to use information technology because they don’t realize how it enhances the organizational structure and culture of the company and it’s potential to increase customers and business value of the organization. Management has to play the biggest role in the change and take decisions accordingly to assist business and customer. Another important characteristic for big companies not to fail and do differently is to offer proper training for employees on the new technologies, to be able to work them in the appropriate way to deliver the right services. For example, Jackie Barretta, vice president and CIO of Con-Way, Inc. was able to benefit her cooperation from the changes she has made in adopting Agile development practices. Her actions have benefited the business as well as her employees, especially the IT department. There was less time to develop projects and a greater communication with IT as they worked jointly and determined priorities. â€Å"I made the case for change in IT by explaining how the business would benefit if we delivered the highest priority functionality faster. I also kept reiterating what was in it for them- and there was a lot† (Textbook p19) When companies’ presidents take change in consideration to benefit the company, therefore, they profited the company, the employees and the customers. 5. How can a manager demonstrate that he or she is a responsible end user of information systems? Give several examples. Managers have to be responsible end user of the information system. They have to be accountable for all aspects of corporation and take the right decisions at the right time to promote the business and its employees. Managers will have to be in charge and work thoroughly with the employees on the information system to make sure to deliver the benefits of the system. While doing so, managers have to secure the system and use ways to protect it through passwords for example to forbid the access to sensitive information. Also, if manager are working from computers not based in the company, there will be a great chance of viruses and spam that will put the information system in danger. Therefore, securing the work on the IS is a great deal before taking action or creating any change. Managers will have to monitor the work of their employees as well as the affectivity of their jobs on the system they are working on. When a manager knows of their duties and the responsibilities that are to be made for an efficient business then there will not be a problem delivering these liabilities through the information system. Being end users, managers will have to identify flaws and mistakes that take place and not over look them. When these strategies are used, it makes the job easy on both manager and employees as they work cooperatively and the security of the information system will not be likely jeopardized.

Attempting to Pin Down a Definition of Childhood Essay

The term ‘Childhood’ has always be hard to define as it will vary from each person, every person would have experienced a childhood but how they define theirs is a different story. ‘Childhood is the time for children to be in school and at play, to grow strong and confident with the love and encouragement of their family and an extended community of caring adults.’(UNICEF, 2005). From a psychological view childhood would be defined as the space between birth and attainment of adulthood; but it is far more than that, it a special time where the child children are safe from violence, free from fear, protected from exploitation and abuse and free to explore the treasures of life. In the UK there is no official age when you are no longer a†¦show more content†¦When asked, many celebrities (sports figures, actors, musicians) state that they dont want to be role models.’(Cohen, E 2005;384)Aristotle would potentially argue that is was not a choice a person can make. As celebrities they are so prominent in society they have no choice but to be a role model and take the responsibilities seriously. Banduras work on social learning shown that much of learning that occurs during development is acquired through observation and imitation. ‘Behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning’ (1977), ‘Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways.’(1961). When this topic is brought to light many of us would agree that children learn best from role models and choose to imitate the behaviour they desire. In today society there are enough negative role models for children to choose from. Both adolescents and children copy the appearances and actions of those in movies, music videos, videos and television. However, today’s society especially the media are not modelling pro-social behaviour or promoting family values. Many parents fear to think of their child imitating actions from a ‘negative role model’. Whether the daughter or son acknowledges it or not, parents are one of the child’s biggest role models and hold the more influence over decision making and what happens in their life. From when the child is born to when they leave home, some of their parentsShow MoreRelatedDeath of a Salesman as a Modern Tragedy2704 Words   |  11 Pagesproperly deals with the fate of gods, kings and heroes. In the twentieth century, such a restricted definition would consign tragedy to the waste bin of literary history. Consequently, in  Death of a Salesman, Miller challenges this view and presents us with an entirely new one. Our increasingly secular world no longer believes in gods, and kings and heroes are increasingly humbled, brought down to the level of ordinary men and women. 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Correctional System V.S Rehabilitation - 1103 Words

The correctional system has three main goals: punish, protect the population and rehabilitate the offender. However, it is unclear how well the modern U.S. correctional system achieves these goals and whether the money invested in the correctional system might be better spent. (http://www.ehow.com/about_5087269_role-correctional-system.html) The only goal the correctional system has is to punish those who are incarcerated, so they never commit another crime and have to come back. It is the most common way of punishment besides capital punishment, parole or probation. Its supose to teach them a lesson and be the most affective way, but is it? The correctional system is also supposed to rehabilitate inmates. Rehabilitation, if done well,†¦show more content†¦Thats why some people argue rehabilitation over punishment.Until the mid-1970s, rehabilitation was a key part of U.S. prison policy. Prisoners were encouraged to develop occupational skills and to resolve psychological pro blems--such as substance abuse or aggression--that might interfere with their reintegration into society. Indeed, many inmates received court sentences that mandated treatment for such problems.In many prison systems, psychologists are the primary mental health care providers, with psychiatrists contracted on a part-time basis. Psychologists provide services ranging from screening new inmates for mental illness to providing group therapy and crisis counseling.They also provide rehabilitative services that are useful even for prisoners without serious mental illnesses, says Fagan. For example, a psychologist might develop special programs for substance abusers or help prisoners prepare for the transition back to the community.Another constraint is the basic philosophical difference between psychology, which is rehabilitative at heart, and corrections, which is currently punishment-oriented.Right now theres such a focus on punishment--most criminal justice or correctional systems are punitive in nature--that its hard to develop effective rehabilitative programs .(http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug03/rehab.aspx) Rehabilitation can and cant speak for itself forShow MoreRelatedThe Effectiveness of U.S. and Scandinavian Penal and Prisons Systems3045 Words   |  13 PagesJoe is a prisoner in a United States penitentiary convicted of assault with a deadly weapon and attempted robbery. Johan is a prisoner in a Norwegian Correctional Facility also convicted of assault with a deadly weapon and attempted robbery. After eight years of serving their time in custody, they are released back out into society, the world beyond their prison walls. During the following month after their release, Joe has once again been arrested for assault and attempted robbery while Johan hasRead MoreThe Criminal Practice Justice System in India7023 Words   |  29 PagesResearch Methodology: THE CRIMINAL PRACTICE JUSTICE SYSTEM IN INDIA THE CRIMINAL PRACTICE JUSTICE SYSTEM IN INDIA CONTENTS Introduction and organisational context The Department The history of Bombay High Court The History of Supreme court New Delhi The Department’s of Indin Criminal law 3.1. The Indian Penal Code 3.2. The Code of Criminal Procedure(CrPC) in India. 3.3. The Indian Evidence Act. The debate issues in bombay high court - case laws Aim, objectives and outputs